# Saint Jerome

Source: https://coptic-lore-forge.lovable.app/wiki/saint-jerome — Coptic Orthodox Wiki (updated 2026-10-03)

Saint Jerome was a fourth- to fifth-century church father and biblical scholar best known for translating the Bible into Latin. His importance for Coptic Christianity also lies in his connections with Alexandrian learning, translations of Egyptian monastic writings, biographies of saints, and testimony about early Christian worship.

## Overview

Saint Jerome, also known by his Latin name Eusebius Hieronymus, was a church father whose principal achievement was translating the Bible from its original languages into Latin. The *Coptic Encyclopedia* places him among the foremost biblical scholars and describes his extensive work as a commentator, translator, and historian of Christian authors.[^1][^3]

His significance for Coptic history extends beyond the Latin Bible: he studied Alexandrian theology, visited Egyptian monastic communities, translated Pachomian texts, and transmitted accounts of Egyptian saints. His writings consequently belong both to the history of Latin Christianity and to the preservation and interpretation of Egypt’s Christian heritage.[^1][^4][^24][^29]

The sources give slightly different dates for his life. His principal encyclopedia entry dates him approximately 347–419/420, while several liturgical articles use approximately 342–420; the difference should remain visible rather than be resolved into an unsupported exact chronology.[^1][^2][^46]

## History and origins

### Education, travel, and service in Rome

Jerome was born at Stridon, at the head of the Adriatic. His advanced education began in Rome and continued through travel to Eastern cities, including Antioch, Laodicea, and Constantinople; as a hermit at Chalcis in the Syrian desert, he learned Hebrew and Greek.[^1]

From 382 to 385 he was again in Rome, serving as secretary to Pope Damasus I. At Damasus’s request he began his biblical translation, while also teaching Paula and other Roman noblewomen who became his disciples.[^1]

After Damasus’s death, Jerome returned east with his disciples, visiting Egypt and Palestine before settling in Bethlehem. There he devoted the remaining three decades of his life to extensive literary work, maintaining a strict ascetic discipline that the encyclopedia connects especially with his Eastern experiences and visits to Egyptian monasteries.[^1]

### Alexandrian learning and Egyptian encounters

The accounts disagree about Jerome’s Alexandrian teacher. His main biography says that he attended classes under Origen at the Catechetical School of Alexandria, whereas the entries on Didymus the Blind and the school identify Jerome, Gregory of Nazianzus, and Rufinus as pupils of Didymus; the supplied evidence therefore does not support silently combining these statements into a single account of personal instruction.[^1][^5][^22]

Didymus’s admirers described him as their teacher, a prophet, and an apostolic man. His combination of ascetic life, biblical interpretation, and theological learning provides the setting in which those sources place Jerome’s Alexandrian education.[^5]

Jerome stopped at Nitria about 386. His Letter 22 shares the monastic interpretation of its name as a place where human sins were washed like soiled garments, drawing on the use of natron for cleaning linen; geographical terminology thus became an image of spiritual purification.[^6]

He also met Isidorus of Hermopolis, a bishop who succeeded Dracontius and preceded Dioscorus, and mentioned him in his epistles. This supplies a specific personal connection with the Egyptian episcopate alongside his better-documented literary and monastic interests.[^20]

## Biblical scholarship and translation

### The Latin Bible and its interpretation

Jerome’s biblical translation used Hebrew and Greek originals rather than merely reproducing the Old Latin version. The encyclopedia judges this a more accurate rendering and notes that the Vulgate, though initially controversial, eventually became the official version of the Roman Catholic Church.[^1]

His commentaries treated a broad range of linguistic and topographical questions relevant to scriptural interpretation. In this presentation, translation and commentary were complementary activities: knowledge of languages and places helped clarify the meaning of the biblical text.[^1]

The *Rudder* offers a particular example of his attention to Hebrew in Hosea 6:7. It contrasts the Septuagint wording about people acting “like a man transgressing my covenant” with Jerome’s rendering, “But they, like Adam, have transgressed my covenant,” and uses that reading within its own discussion of Adam and his descendants.[^11]

Other notices in the *Rudder* attribute to Jerome the description of the Gospel as “the epitome of all theology,” record his acceptance of Revelation, and report his favorable judgment of the *Shepherd* as a beneficial and necessary book. These notices show how later Orthodox reference literature invoked his authority on scriptural and early Christian writings.[^12][^13][^14]

### Origen’s textual and exegetical legacy

Jerome used Origen’s biblical scholarship even though he later opposed Origen in theological controversy. He stated that he consulted the original *Hexapla* at Caesarea, and the encyclopedia also associates him with use of the *Tetrapla*, its four-column counterpart.[^7][^8][^4]

The *Hexapla* juxtaposed Hebrew in Hebrew and Greek characters with the Greek versions of Aquila, Symmachus, the Septuagint, and Theodotion. Jerome’s reported access to this work connects his Latin scholarship with the comparative study of biblical texts developed in the Alexandrian tradition.[^7]

He preserved some of Origen’s notes on Daniel and, with Rufinus, transmitted material from *De Principiis* through Latin renderings that the encyclopedia considers inadequate. The importance of this transmission lies partly in the loss or fragmentary survival of the original works.[^7][^8]

Jerome also supplies evidence about the extent of Origen’s production, though the sources preserve disagreements. Against an estimate of 6,000 works, Jerome gave 2,000; concerning the Genesis commentary, Eusebius counted twelve books, while Jerome counted thirteen, including two of mystical homilies.[^9][^7]

His testimony is likewise cited for the Gospel recension associated with Hesychius, an Egyptian bishop and biblical scholar. Here Jerome serves as a witness to the history of the Egyptian biblical text, not only as the producer of a Latin version.[^10]

## Christian literary history and Egyptian figures

### De viris illustribus

Jerome’s account of Christian authors, usually cited in the supplied material as *De viris illustribus*, included Coptic church fathers and is described in his biography as the first great work on patristics. The same entry also credits him with continuing Eusebius’s *Historia ecclesiastica*.[^1][^15]

The encyclopedia bibliography lists *De viris illustribus* in *Patrologia Latina* 23, columns 631–766, an edition by C. A. Bernoulli published in 1895 and again in 1968, and an English translation by E. C. Richardson in the second series of the *Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers*, volume 6. It also lists Jerome’s Latin translation of the Rule of Pachomius in *Patrologia Latina* 23, columns 65–90.[^15]

### Antony, Sarapion, and Clement

In *De viris illustribus* 87, Jerome attested that Athanasius wrote the *Life of Antony*. The encyclopedia uses his testimony, alongside Rufinus and the first Greek *Life of Pachomius*, in discussing the attribution of that foundational monastic biography.[^16]

Chapter 88 shows that seven letters circulated under Antony’s name in Jerome’s time. The encyclopedia distinguishes these from additional letters later transmitted under Antony’s name, many belonging instead to Ammonas, while acknowledging continuing questions about the authenticity of the seven themselves.[^17]

Jerome is also an important witness to Sarapion of Tmuis. He explained the epithet *Scholasticus* by Sarapion’s eloquence and learning and reported a commentary on the titles of the Psalms and letters to various recipients; this testimony helps document an author whose writings have largely disappeared.[^18]

His assessment of Clement of Alexandria was particularly favorable: he described Clement as the most learned scholar of his time. The encyclopedia cites this judgment in its account of the intellectual foundations of Alexandrian theology.[^19]

### Dionysius of Alexandria: conflicting testimony

The *Rudder* invokes Jerome’s catalogue of ecclesiastical authors for Dionysius of Alexandria’s earlier priesthood and for the claim that Dionysius agreed with Cyprian about rebaptizing returning heretics and schismatics. A separate encyclopedia account says that Dionysius forbade such rebaptism; the supplied sources therefore disagree about his position on rebaptism.[^21][^22]

## Egyptian monastic translations and practical life

### The Monastery of the Metanoia

Jerome’s translations answered practical needs within Egyptian monastic communities. At Canopus, Pachomian monks attracted Latin-speaking visitors and monks, for whom he translated rules attributed to Pachomius, Theodorus of Alexandria, and Horsiesios.[^24]

The Monastery of the Metanoia is first mentioned by that name in Jerome’s preface of 404 to his translation of normative Pachomian writings, intended partly for its monks. Its original community consisted of monks from Upper Egypt installed at Canopus by Theophilus in 391 on the site of suppressed pagan sanctuaries.[^23]

The name *Metanoia*, rendered “Penitence,” replaced associations attached to pagan Canopus. Jerome’s preface consequently provides evidence both for the monastery’s early history and for the circulation of Egyptian communal discipline across a language boundary.[^23][^24]

### Horsiesios and the communal ideal

The spiritual testament of Horsiesios, known as the *Liber Orsiesii*, survives only in Jerome’s translation of 404. Its immediate setting was an internal Pachomian crisis, perhaps the crisis that caused Horsiesios’s resignation, involving increasing wealth and its appropriation by individual monasteries or monks.[^25]

Horsiesios considered such appropriation a threat to community itself. His work enumerated the duties of superiors at different levels and has therefore been called a “mirror of the superior”; the encyclopedia regards it as the fullest and most articulate surviving presentation of Pachomian ascetic and communal ideals.[^25]

Its extensive quotations from nearly all the books of the Old and New Testaments also show that the translated material concerned scripturally grounded spiritual formation, not simply administration. Jerome’s work preserved a sustained explanation of why communal responsibilities mattered.[^25]

### Cells, furnishings, and monastic numbers

Jerome’s vocabulary preserves practical details while also raising questions of interpretation. His Latin *cella* appears in Pachomian texts for a monk’s room within a larger community; related terms include Greek *kellion*, Coptic *ri*, and Arabic *qallayah*, plural *qalali*.[^26]

The Greek *kathismation* became *sellula* in Jerome’s translation. Scholars have interpreted this as a small seat or as a reclining chair in which the monk remained half sitting and half lying, but the encyclopedia stresses that the furnishing is known only from texts and that the contents of Pachomian cells have not survived.[^27]

His numerical reports require similar caution. The preface to the Pachomian Rules gives 50,000 monks attending the congregation’s annual general chapter, a figure the encyclopedia explicitly calls exaggerated; Palladius’s figures of 3,000 during Pachomius’s lifetime and 7,000 later in the fourth century provide a contrasting scale, though they describe different circumstances.[^28]

Jerome’s translations nevertheless had a demonstrable importance beyond Egypt. Together with John Cassian’s *Conferences* and *Cenobitic Institutes*, they helped Egyptian monasticism exert a profound influence on Western and Benedictine traditions.[^29]

## Hagiography: Paul, Antony, and Hilarion

### Life of Saint Paul the First Hermit

Jerome composed the Latin *Life of Saint Paul the First Hermit*, concerning Saint Paul of Thebes, probably in 375–376. According to that narrative, Paul withdrew from the Lower Thebaid into the Arabian desert during the Decian persecution, lived almost ninety years in a cave, and was discovered by Antony shortly before his death.[^30]

The work idealizes desert solitude and includes marvelous episodes, notably two lions helping Antony dig Paul’s grave. The encyclopedia interprets Jerome’s purpose as presenting Paul as the true initiator of the solitary life: he withdrew earlier, remained more isolated, and was finally buried by Antony in an act ordinarily performed by a disciple.[^30]

This presentation also connects persecution with voluntary ascetic commitment. In the encyclopedia’s discussion of monastic origins, Paul’s flight illustrates how a refuge initially imposed by danger could become a freely chosen permanent way of life—if Jerome’s account is accepted.[^56]

The historical reliability of the biography remains disputed in the supplied scholarship. The Paul entry identifies it as the only historical document concerning him and regards notices in Cassian and Sulpicius Severus as dependent on it; another article calls the life probably fictitious.[^30][^37]

The traditions also differ in chronology. The Paul entry gives an age of fifteen at withdrawal and death about 340–341, while the monastery chronology gives sixteen and death in 343; that chronology places the monastery’s foundation in the later fourth or fifth century, whereas another discussion concludes from Postumian’s visit that no monastery yet existed there in 401.[^30][^31][^32]

A Coptic version published by E. Amélineau is described as a free translation of Jerome’s Latin text, contrary to Amélineau’s proposal that it was the original from which Jerome worked. Its ending bears Jerome’s name, while two Arabic-Jacobite Synaxarion recensions commemorate Paul on 2 Amshir and preserve additional variations.[^30]

### Life of Hilarion

Jerome wrote the Latin *Vita Hilarionis* shortly after 390 at Bethlehem. Almost the only source for the Palestinian monk’s life, it is characterized by the encyclopedia as romantic in character and historically contested.[^33]

In Jerome’s narrative, Hilarion was born about 293 near Gaza, studied at Alexandria at fifteen, converted to Christianity, and spent two months with Antony before returning to Palestine. After giving his inherited possessions to the poor, he established himself in solitude near Majuma, where demonic assaults, miracles, and gathering disciples increasingly interrupted his withdrawal.[^33]

His subsequent travels express the same tension between solitude and reputation. Jerome takes him to Egypt after Antony’s death, then to Libya after Julian’s death in 363, Sicily, Epirus, and finally Cyprus, where he died about 373; his disciple Hesychius secretly returned his body to Majuma.[^33]

The biography deliberately presents Hilarion as Antony’s disciple and counterpart, founding Palestinian monasticism as Antony had done in Egypt. The encyclopedia nevertheless rejects Jerome’s claim that no monks had previously existed throughout Syria, citing the earlier ascetic tradition associated with Chariton in the Judaean desert.[^33][^34]

A Coptic version, published with an Italian translation by F. Rossi, probably derives from a surviving Greek version. The Synaxarion notice uses Jerome’s biography but omits Hilarion’s supposed relationship with Antony; the supplied entry itself gives differing commemorations, 24 Baramhat in its opening and 24 Babah in its discussion of the Synaxarion.[^34][^33]

Jerome’s Hilarion narrative also preserves a reference to the Monastery of Brucheum, in an old district of Alexandria near the sea. Elsewhere, an encyclopedia discussion of a Bawit fresco compares its centaur with Jerome’s account of a demon appearing to Antony in that form, illustrating the use of his narratives in interpreting monastic imagery.[^35][^36]

## Theology and ascetic meaning

### Controversy and the assessment of authors

Jerome opposed Arianism and Pelagianism and eventually turned against Origen amid the Origenist controversy. The sources therefore distinguish his substantial use and translation of Origen’s writings from his later theological opposition.[^4][^38]

That concern for doctrinal boundaries appears in Epistle 133 to Ctesiphon, where he criticized the *History of the Monks in Egypt*. Although accepting John of Lycopolis as both orthodox and holy, Jerome objected that placing John first made the “heretics” who followed easier to accept; his objection concerned the collection’s presentation rather than John’s sanctity.[^39]

The *Rudder* also interprets Jerome’s work against the Luciferians as opposing views shared by the Donatists. This is a later reception of his polemical activity rather than a separate detailed account of that controversy in the supplied passages.[^40]

### Chastity, marriage, and disciplined community

In *Against Jovinian* 1.12, Jerome describes chastity as becoming a pure temple of God and offering oneself wholly, holy in body and spirit. The encyclopedia cites these words to explain monastic chastity as dedicated spiritual life rather than merely the absence of marriage.[^41]

The *Rudder* quotes his description of virginity as a sacrifice to Christ involving imitation of angels. It also cites Letter 22, which connects Christ’s coming to earth with the establishment of angelic conduct among human beings.[^42]

His letter to Pammachius distinguishes tolerance from praise in discussing repeated marriages: “It is one thing not to condemn, another to commend; one thing to grant forgiveness, another to praise as virtuous.” The encyclopedia places this beside Cyril of Jerusalem’s warning not to despise those entering a second marriage, preserving a distinction between permission and an ascetic ideal.[^43]

Jerome was also critical of the *remnuoth*, ascetics mentioned disdainfully in Epistle 22.34. The encyclopedia places them among people living outside formal monastic institutions, sometimes in informal groups supported by work, trade, or private income; this situates his criticism within the variety of early ascetic arrangements.[^44]

His interest in the *Sentences of Sextus*, shared with Rufinus, provides another connection with ascetic literature. The encyclopedia relates that interest to Egyptian monasticism and cautiously suggests that the text’s presence among the Nag Hammadi manuscripts may reflect monks’ appreciation of its ascetic teaching rather than a uniformly Gnostic collection.[^45]

## Liturgical testimony and prayer terminology

### Light and the Gospel

Jerome’s best-developed liturgical testimony in the passages concerns lights kindled for Gospel readings in Eastern churches even when the sun was shining. Their purpose, he explained, was “not indeed to dispel darkness, but to exhibit a token of joy,” with bodily light representing the illumination of God’s word.[^46][^47]

The encyclopedia connects this testimony with Coptic practice: a reader holds a lighted candle for scriptural readings, and two deacons stand with candles beside the priest or deacon reading the Gospel. His explanation thus supplies a theological interpretation of the action, not merely evidence that it occurred.[^47]

### Kyrie eleison

The Greek petition *Kyrie eleison* means “Lord, have mercy.” According to the encyclopedia, Jerome and Gregory of Nazianzus regarded it as a tradition entrusted by the apostles to the Church.[^2]

Its Coptic liturgical settings include the canonical hours, annual and Kiyahk psalmodia, the Divine Liturgy, the Liturgy of Saint Gregory, and sacramental services. At the beginning of evening and morning prayer, the deacon and congregation respond three times to the priest’s mercy petition; it also accompanies the fasting petition during morning prayer in Jonah’s Fast and Great Lent.[^2]

### Saturday fasting and reserved communion

Jerome reported that Hippolytus discussed Saturday fasting and daily reception of the Eucharist. The encyclopedia takes this as evidence that Saturday fasting was known at Rome early in the third century, contrasting Western practice with the Eastern treatment of Saturday as generally festal and nonfasting.[^48]

The same discussion preserves disagreement: Socrates reported Roman Saturday fasting, Augustine followed it, while Tertullian condemned fasting on the Sabbath outside the Passover season. Jerome’s testimony belongs within this history of regional variation rather than establishing one universal practice.[^48]

The *Rudder* cites his letter to Pammachius as evidence for Western Christians receiving presanctified bread on Wednesdays and Fridays when the liturgy was not celebrated daily. It also invokes his fourth letter to Rufinus as testimony that presanctified wine was kept in churches.[^49][^50][^51]

These references support the *Rudder*’s argument that reserved communion preceded Gregory Dialogus. The source’s further reconstruction of prayers before and after reception is its own interpretation of that evidence and should not be treated as a liturgical text quoted from Jerome.[^49]

## Reception and significance in Coptic Orthodox life

Jerome’s *Lives of Paul and Hilarion* were among the hagiographic works accepted by the Copts and incorporated into broader patristic literature. The encyclopedia also includes “Jerome the Presbyter” among authors represented in Coptic translation, while emphasizing the difficulty of dating translations precisely and the possibility of reediting during transmission.[^52][^53][^54]

His role in transmitting Egyptian spirituality is not limited to Egypt’s literary inheritance. His *Life of Paul* was known in Ireland, where the encyclopedia connects the appeal of Egyptian hermits with local admiration for solitary religious heroism; his Pachomian translations helped shape Western communal monasticism as well.[^37][^29]

A 1984 *Coptic Church Review* essay places Jerome’s Latin *Life of Paul* among the major texts through which Egyptian desert wisdom became known. Its central interpretive concern is that Greek and Latin literary transmission should not obscure the Egyptian character of the ascetic tradition being transmitted.[^55]

Jerome’s continuing relevance in Coptic reference literature therefore includes biblical scholarship, the preservation of monastic rules, the interpretation of saints’ lives, and explanations of prayer and worship. That importance coexists with critical qualifications concerning his historical narratives, numerical estimates, and polemical judgments.[^1][^25][^28][^30][^39][^47]

His reception should nevertheless be distinguished from a documented Coptic feast. The principal biography states that he is absent from the Copto-Arabic Synaxarion and identifies 30 September as his Roman Catholic commemoration; it also calls him one of the four doctors of that Church and treats his supposed appointment as cardinal as uncertain, supported only by a late thirteenth-century image showing a red cardinal’s hat.[^1]

## Frequently asked questions

**Who was Saint Jerome?**
Saint Jerome was a fourth- to fifth-century church father, biblical scholar, and translator. His foremost achievement was the Latin biblical translation known as the Vulgate.

**What was Saint Jerome’s connection with Egypt?**
Jerome visited Egypt, studied under Didymus the Blind, and encountered Egyptian monastic life. He translated Pachomian writings into Latin and wrote biographies that helped spread knowledge of Egyptian asceticism.

**Is Saint Jerome in the Coptic Synaxarion?**
The Coptic Encyclopedia states that Jerome is not included in the Copto-Arabic Synaxarion. It identifies 30 September as his feast day in the Roman Catholic Church.

**What did Jerome write about Paul of Thebes?**
Jerome composed the Latin Life of Saint Paul the First Hermit, probably in 375–376, presenting Paul as an earlier and more solitary desert ascetic than Antony. The supplied scholarship notes substantial questions about the narrative’s historical reliability.

**Why did Jerome say churches lit candles during daylight?**
Jerome explained that Eastern churches kindled lights for the Gospel reading as a sign of joy, not simply to dispel darkness. Physical light represented the spiritual illumination of God’s word.

## Sources
[^1]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 4, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 813)
[^2]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 5, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 176)
[^3]: The Coptic Encyclopedia — Index, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 172)
[^4]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 4, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 814)
[^5]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 3, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 569)
[^6]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 6, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 231)
[^7]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 6, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 377)
[^8]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 2, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 396)
[^9]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 6, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 374)
[^10]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 2, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 169)
[^11]: The Rudder (Pedalion) of the Metaphorical Ship of the One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church of Orthodox Christians, Agapios, a Hieromonk and Nicodemos, a Monk (p. 1350)
[^12]: The Rudder (Pedalion) of the Metaphorical Ship of the One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church of Orthodox Christians, Agapios, a Hieromonk and Nicodemos, a Monk (p. 1148)
[^13]: The Rudder (Pedalion) of the Metaphorical Ship of the One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church of Orthodox Christians, Agapios, a Hieromonk and Nicodemos, a Monk (p. 1933)
[^14]: The Rudder (Pedalion) of the Metaphorical Ship of the One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church of Orthodox Christians, Agapios, a Hieromonk and Nicodemos, a Monk (p. 1445)
[^15]: The Coptic Encyclopedia — Introduction, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 75)
[^16]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 1, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 382)
[^17]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 1, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 384)
[^18]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 7, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 160)
[^19]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 1, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 263)
[^20]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 7, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 126)
[^21]: The Rudder (Pedalion) of the Metaphorical Ship of the One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church of Orthodox Christians, Agapios, a Hieromonk and Nicodemos, a Monk (p. 1359)
[^22]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 2, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 399)
[^23]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 5, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 626)
[^24]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 1, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 86)
[^25]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 4, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 643)
[^26]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 2, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 413)
[^27]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 2, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 414)
[^28]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 5, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 778)
[^29]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 5, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 780)
[^30]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 6, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 561)
[^31]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 3, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 196)
[^32]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 3, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 198)
[^33]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 4, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 578)
[^34]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 4, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 579)
[^35]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 5, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 729)
[^36]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 2, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 178)
[^37]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 2, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 258)
[^38]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 2, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 398)
[^39]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 5, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 27)
[^40]: The Rudder (Pedalion) of the Metaphorical Ship of the One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church of Orthodox Christians, Agapios, a Hieromonk and Nicodemos, a Monk (p. 1334)
[^41]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 5, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 792)
[^42]: The Rudder (Pedalion) of the Metaphorical Ship of the One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church of Orthodox Christians, Agapios, a Hieromonk and Nicodemos, a Monk (p. 1440)
[^43]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 5, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 481)
[^44]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 5, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 713)
[^45]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 7, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 221)
[^46]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 1, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 280)
[^47]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 2, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 333)
[^48]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 7, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 167)
[^49]: The Rudder (Pedalion) of the Metaphorical Ship of the One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church of Orthodox Christians, Agapios, a Hieromonk and Nicodemos, a Monk (p. 838)
[^50]: The Rudder (Pedalion) of the Metaphorical Ship of the One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church of Orthodox Christians, Agapios, a Hieromonk and Nicodemos, a Monk (p. 839)
[^51]: The Rudder (Pedalion) of the Metaphorical Ship of the One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church of Orthodox Christians, Agapios, a Hieromonk and Nicodemos, a Monk (p. 1146)
[^52]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 4, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 470)
[^53]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 5, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 260)
[^54]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 5, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 261)
[^55]: Coptic Church Review, Volume 5, Number 3 (p. 17)
[^56]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 5, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 775)