# Shenoute the Archimandrite

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Shenoute the Archimandrite was a fourth- and fifth-century Coptic saint, monastic reformer, and author associated with the White Monastery near Sohag in Upper Egypt. He directed communities of monks and nuns, accompanied Cyril of Alexandria to the Council of Ephesus in 431, and combined rigorous ascetic teaching with extensive pastoral and charitable activity.

## Overview

Shenoute, also called Shenute, Shenouda of Atripe, and Apa Shenute, was a reforming abbot of the White Monastery near ancient Atrib, in the region of Akhmim and modern Sohag in Upper Egypt. His principal biographical entry places him in the fourth and fifth centuries and gives his feast day as 7 Abib.[^1][^6] He bore the title Archimandrite, directed communities of monks and nuns, and became an influential religious figure beyond his monastery through preaching, consultation, charitable relief, and intervention in regional affairs.[^3][^4]

His legacy includes both demanding ascetic leadership and a substantial body of original Coptic writing. The encyclopedia’s literary survey calls him the most important author of Coptic literature, while its biographical account emphasizes the practical, pastoral, and moral purposes of his works.[^17][^4] The sources also record corporal punishment within his communities and destructive attacks on pagan religious sites: these belong to the historical account alongside his assistance to the poor and displaced.[^3][^5]

## Sources and disputed chronology

### Writings and the Life by Besa

The principal sources for Shenoute’s life are his own literary remains and the *Life* composed by his disciple and successor Besa. Probably written originally in Sahidic, the *Life* survives complete only in Bohairic and other Oriental versions, including Arabic, Syriac, and Ethiopic. Its numerous miracle stories require consideration as hagiography, although the encyclopedia also regards it as preserving valuable historical information.[^1]

Besa had served under Shenoute and attained a position of trust before being nominated as his successor in Shenoute’s old age. Consequently, his account comes from within the community’s leadership tradition rather than from an independent observer.[^10] Other saints’ lives, monastic liturgical manuals, manuscript remains, and architectural evidence supplement this central testimony, but sometimes preserve conflicting chronologies or stories shaped by later ecclesiastical concerns.[^16][^22][^26][^30]

### Dates and their uncertainties

The principal biography explicitly states that Shenoute’s dates are uncertain: it proposes that he probably died in 466 and would have been born in 348 if Besa’s reported lifespan of 118 years is accepted. It places his entry into the White Monastery around 371 and his accession as abbot after Pjol’s death around 385.[^1]

Other supplied sources give different dates. *Coptic Church Review* prints 350–466; the encyclopedia article on nuns gives 343–425; and the linguistic article on Shenutean idiom gives 334–451.[^6][^7][^8] A historical discussion of Greek in Egypt describes him as abbot around 385–451, while the Besa entry makes succession in 466 conditional upon accepting that year for Shenoute’s death.[^9][^10] These chronologies should not be combined into an apparently certain lifespan; the date ending in 425 also conflicts with the biography’s acceptance of his attendance at Ephesus in 431.[^7][^3]

## History and origins

### Family, shepherding, and early ascetic life

According to the principal biography, Shenoute was born at Shenalolet in the Akhmim region, where his parents possessed a smallholding and sheep. He worked as a shepherd in his youth and came under the influence of his maternal uncle Pjol, founder of the White Monastery.[^1] The Besa entry dates that foundation to the middle of the fourth century and locates it beside ancient Atrib near Sohag.[^10]

The monastery’s historical entry preserves a different account of his early formation: at seven he was entrusted to Pjol and received the monastic habit. He lived with his uncle, then a hermit on the mountain of Adribah, and with Abshay, or Pshoi, associated with a nearby monastery. This tradition presents Shenoute’s beginnings as eremitic and recalls his later withdrawals far into the desert.[^2] The childhood investiture and the principal biography’s entry date around 371 represent different accounts whose relationship is not explained in the supplied passages.[^1][^2]

The *Life of Pshoi* similarly connects Pjol, Pshoi, and the seven-year-old Shenoute, describing the construction of three cells and a church called al-Raghamah, apparently meaning “of the mountain.” It also relates a journey to Asyut and a heavenly declaration appointing Shenoute leader of the monks; the encyclopedia identifies chronological and personal confusions in that episode. The same tradition credits Shenoute with burying Pshoi at the monastery Pshoi founded, probably the Red Monastery.[^11]

### The Upper Egyptian setting

The White Monastery’s church stands at the edge of the Libyan desert, on the Nile’s left bank, about 10 kilometres from Sohag. Its locality was called Atripe, Arabic Adribah, and in Hellenized form Triphiou; the site-name derives from an Egyptian expression meaning “house of [the goddess] Triphis.” The source warns against confusing this Upper Egyptian site with Atrib in the Delta.[^2]

Christian asceticism in the locality preceded Shenoute. The Upper Egyptian recension of the Coptic Synaxarion, in its notice for Panine and Paneu on 7 Kiyahk, associates early monastic activity with Adribah and Idfa; the monastery entry suggests that hermits may have frequented the mountain before the fourth century.[^2] Thus Shenoute’s reforming leadership should be distinguished from the beginnings of Christianity or asceticism in the region.[^2]

## Monastic reform and practical life

### Community size and admission

The White Monastery expanded substantially under Shenoute and included houses for women as well as men. The Arabic *Life* reports 2,200 monks and 1,800 nuns; *Coptic Church Review* associates these figures with the combined Red and White monasteries, while its shorter survey describes a colony of more than 2,000 monks near Sohag.[^1][^6][^12] These are transmitted community totals rather than independently verified counts.[^1]

Applicants had to renounce their possessions and undertake a vow, introduced by Shenoute, to lead a pure life. Before final admission they underwent a trial period at the gatehouse, which also received visitors and was supervised by a trusted monk. Members participated in common work and worship, while older, trusted monks held responsible offices.[^1]

Detailed regulations governed daily activity, including eating and drinking in an austerely ordered refectory. Dietary restrictions were relaxed in the infirmary, showing that the disciplinary system made specific provision for illness.[^1] The shorter monastic survey emphasizes severe fasting and ascetic practices but also states that monks could withdraw into the mountains for complete solitude.[^12]

### Obedience, correction, and solitude

Shenoute administered the rule inherited from Pjol, described as considerably harsher than Pachomius’s, and supplemented it with detailed instructions in numerous letters. Obedience was central to his understanding of monastic life; punishments included corporal correction and, in extreme cases, expulsion.[^3]

The biographical entry depicts a forceful leader whose frustration could become depression or despair when his authority was resisted. It also explains that he understood himself as God’s obedient servant and as a bearer of divine inspiration. Despite administrative responsibilities, he periodically withdrew into the desert for prayer and closer communion with God, where visions were reported.[^3] Communal discipline and solitary retreat therefore coexisted in the tradition surrounding him rather than representing mutually exclusive forms of asceticism.[^3][^12]

### Relationship to Pachomian monasticism

The sources do not offer a single interpretation of Shenoute’s relationship to Pachomian institutions. The biography compares the rules of Pjol and Pachomius, whereas the literary survey questions the assumption that Shenoute’s community was simply Pachomian monasticism with stricter regulations.[^3][^13]

That survey distinguishes the traditions by their accounts of representation at Ephesus—Victor of Tabennese in Pachomian memory and Shenoute in Shenoutean memory—and by their later ecclesiastical loyalties. It contrasts Pachomian accommodation to imperial authority during the Chalcedonian crisis with the adherence of Shenoute’s followers to anti-Chalcedonian patriarchs descended from Dioscorus’s line.[^13] It also identifies differences in literary ambition and theological orientation, particularly Shenoute’s explicit anti-Origenism, while treating evidence for the earliest Pachomian position as uncertain.[^14]

Shenoute’s regulations nevertheless circulated beyond his own community. In the sixth century, Abraham of Farshut gave his rules to both monks and nuns after founding new communities; Abraham’s tradition also relates an appearance of Pachomius, Petronius, and Shenoute announcing his death and naming Theophilus as successor.[^15]

## Theology and meaning

### Ephesus and Alexandrian allegiance

In 431 Shenoute accompanied Cyril of Alexandria to the Council of Ephesus. The principal biography accepts his attendance as historical, while treating Besa’s story of a violent confrontation with Nestorius as doubtful. It suggests that he may have received the rank of archimandrite on this occasion in recognition of his service, without presenting that explanation as certain.[^3]

The same entry interprets Cyril’s invitation in light of Shenoute’s reputation as a reliable supporter of the Alexandrian cause. It also notes that, although claims of spiritual authority could produce tensions between monks and bishops, Shenoute appears to have avoided a serious clash with the episcopal hierarchy.[^3]

### Contrasting assessments of his theological ability

The supplied encyclopedia articles disagree substantially about Shenoute as a theologian. His biography emphasizes practical piety, biblical familiarity, monastic administration, and moral teaching; it judges that he did not develop a coherent theology or examine doctrinal issues deeply.[^4] It nevertheless records attacks on Arians, Melitians, and Manichaeans, Christological allegiance to Cyril, and a polemical work against Origenist gnosticism. It also remarks on the comparatively limited attention he gives to Marian veneration.[^4]

The literary survey offers a more positive assessment. It describes Shenoute as highly educated in Greek ecclesiastical and classical literature and capable of original, assured theological discussion. One work published by L. T. Lefort treats the Incarnation and what the survey calls “transubstantiation,” especially against Nestorian teaching; another reconstructed work addresses creation, the soul’s preexistence, apocryphal literature, Christology, prayer, and angels in the context of Origenist and popular Gnostic ideas.[^14]

The disagreement concerns the interpretation of his intellectual achievement, not simply whether theological material exists in his writings. Both accounts recognize doctrinal engagement, but one subordinates it to practical monastic concerns while the other regards the surviving works as evidence of considerable theological sophistication.[^4][^14]

## Pastoral leadership, charity, and conflict

### Access to the monastery and regional care

Shenoute’s monastery received a continuing stream of visitors, including bishops, secular dignitaries, ascetics from Scetis, and monks from Pachomian communities. People consulted him on spiritual and secular matters, and military commanders sought his guidance and blessing before fighting nomadic groups entering Upper Egypt from the south.[^4]

Laypeople could attend monastic services and hear his sermons. His pastoral concern extended to the prosperity of the region: the biography records special prayers for the Nile’s inundation, on which agricultural well-being depended.[^4] It also describes almsgiving and organized famine relief, including the distribution of bread.[^4][^5]

In one account, Shenoute reports that 20,000 men, women, and children took refuge within the White Monastery during tribal devastation. The monks supplied food and clothing, cared for the sick, and buried the dead. He attributed the achievement to God rather than claiming personal credit; the encyclopedia observes that the narrative also reveals the monastery’s economic resources and his organizational capacity.[^5]

### Defence of the poor and anti-pagan violence

Shenoute rebuked wealthy people for exploiting workers and treating the poor cruelly. *Coptic Church Review* further characterizes him as a popular leader in opposition to foreign Byzantine rule, whereas the principal biography more specifically documents his involvement in regional welfare and conflict.[^5][^6]

His opposition to pagan religion included both polemical writing and physical action. The biography reports that he led attacks on temples, that temples were burned and cult objects removed or destroyed, and that pagan homes were also targeted. It states that attempts to restrain him legally were frustrated by his militant popular following.[^5] These actions should be distinguished from his charitable activities, even though both formed part of the public authority described by the sources.[^5]

## Writings, language, and terminology

### Literary character and transmission

Shenoute’s extensive Coptic writings include letters, sermons, monastic instructions, and theological polemics. Their style is described as powerful and individual, rich in biblical quotations and allusions, and marked by repeated ideas expressed through synonyms. The biographical entry observes that the speed and emotional intensity of his thought sometimes impaired clarity.[^3][^4][^5]

The literary survey credits him with an important move toward applying established literary conventions to original Coptic composition. Unlike its portrayal of Pachomius, it presents Shenoute as deliberately developing Coptic into a highly individual literary medium, and it suggests that he fostered and supervised translation at his monastery.[^17][^14]

His works were preserved predominantly in the White Monastery’s library and reached modern collections in dispersed fragments. Portions entered the Borgia and Nani collections in eighteenth-century Italy, now represented in Rome, Naples, and Venice; a major discovery of library remains followed in 1888, with much of the material going to Paris.[^17] Three relatively substantial codices—one at the Louvre and two at the Institut français d’Archéologie orientale in Cairo—show that the works were assembled into corpora with titles and contextual remarks.[^13]

Their circulation was not confined absolutely to the White Monastery. The library of the Archangel Michael at Sopehes in the Fayyum included sermons attributed to Shenoute among fifty-six codices written between 820 and 920, most of which passed to the Pierpont Morgan Library.[^18] Another notice cautiously suggests that Shenoute used the *Physiologos* when discussing flies.[^19]

### Shenutean Coptic and cultural identity

“Shenutean Coptic” designates the grammar, phraseology, and stylistic usage of his corpus. The linguistic entry regards it as the largest homogeneous, authentic body of original Sahidic writing and therefore an especially valuable basis for describing Coptic independently of translations from Greek.[^8]

That distinction matters because biblical Coptic may reflect the grammar of its Greek source. An untranslated corpus such as Shenoute’s provides a comparative grammatical system for identifying native Coptic usage.[^8] The entry states specifically that, as of 1982, only slightly more than half the known or presumed material had been edited; its discussion of identification relies on grammatical and stylistic evidence from established texts rather than impression alone.[^8]

A devotional essay groups Shenoute with Egyptian ascetics who spoke Coptic and perhaps no Greek, but the biographical and literary entries explicitly credit him with Greek knowledge, the latter including classical literature.[^40][^3][^14] His use of *Hellen* as a synonym for “pagan,” recorded in the historical discussion of Greek, consequently concerns religious and cultural terminology rather than necessarily indicating ignorance of Greek.[^9][^20]

The sources provide the Arabic name in transliteration as *Shinudah* and the monastery’s names as *Dayr Anba Shinudah* and *al-Dayr al-Abyad*, “White Monastery.” They also use *Apa* as a monastic title; the art-historical discussion cautions that this title by itself does not identify a figure as the famous saint.[^2][^38]

A separate encyclopedia discussion places texts of Shenoute within an Egyptian monastic tradition that represented the devil through black or “Ethiopian” imagery. It interprets that imagery through inherited historical associations; this is evidence about the texts’ symbolism and cultural assumptions, not a description of any people’s spiritual character.[^21]

## Disciples, saints, and hagiographic traditions

### Besa, Joseph, and later abbots

Besa succeeded Shenoute as abbot and likewise bore the title archimandrite. He administered the White Monastery and its dependent male and female houses, and his name is joined to Shenoute’s in the liturgical Memento of the saints.[^10]

Joseph, Shenoute’s secretary, appears in Coptic and Arabic versions of the *Life*. Although absent from the Copts’ Synaxarion, he was commemorated at Shenoute’s monastery on 30 Tut, as its *typika*, or liturgical manuals, attest. The Arabic designation *al-Hakim* raises the possibility that he was a physician, but the encyclopedia treats this as uncertain.[^16]

The institution remained associated with Shenoute long afterward: Seth is identified as its archimandrite at the beginning of the eighth century and appears in the monastery’s liturgical manuscripts.[^29] Paphnutius, a fifth-century Pachomian archimandrite, was also commemorated there, illustrating connections beyond the monastery’s own succession of abbots.[^28]

### Narratives of prophetic authority

In the tradition of Pidjimi, Shenoute sees a column of precious stones identifying the older ascetic and visits his cell. The story joins boiling water prepared in advance with the revival of an ancient dead man; the Coptic fragments specify that Shenoute tapped the bones three times with his staff.[^25][^26]

The encyclopedia interprets these miracles as validating Shenoute’s divine election. It further suggests that the *Life of Pidjimi* may have asserted anti-Chalcedonian monastic claims at Pharan long after Shenoute’s death, so that the narrative’s later purpose must be distinguished from a recoverable account of the encounter.[^26]

The *Life of Moses of Abydos* similarly reports that Shenoute foretold Moses’s birth shortly before his own death and predicted that Moses would end sacrifices and destroy temples that Shenoute had been unable to eliminate.[^27] In the panegyric on Macarius of Tkow, a vision of Shenoute helps establish Macarius as a spokesman for Coptic-speaking Christianity, linked through Paphnutius to monastic traditions and through Dioscorus to the Alexandrian hierarchy.[^23]

The encyclopedia describes the Macarius panegyric as a hagiographical romance shaped by opposition to the Council of Chalcedon, not a straightforward historical biography.[^24] It applies comparable caution to White Monastery narratives about John of Lycopolis, where Shenoute’s disciples may have adapted the earlier saint’s reputation to glorify their master, with serious chronological distortions.[^22]

## The monastery, material heritage, and representations

### Church and library

The architectural entry attributes the White Monastery church to Shenoute with considerable confidence and dates it before the middle of the fifth century. It identifies the building as an exceptionally important monument of early Christian architecture in Upper Egypt with substantial regional influence.[^30]

Its plan included a raised presbytery, subsidiary sanctuary rooms, a northern staircase, and an octagonal southeastern room containing remains of a baptismal font. Suggested functions for southern rooms—a library and a chapter house—remain uncertain.[^30] Three concealed storage spaces, called *khizanahs*, have been identified in the church, entered through wall niches with movable stone slabs; such spaces principally protected valuables, including liturgical utensils, during danger.[^31]

Later rebuilding should not be attributed to Shenoute himself. The church suffered a severe fire at an uncertain date, possibly during the Persian conquest in 619, and was repaired with fired brick; a three-part *khurus*, between nave and sanctuary, was added around the ninth century, while central sanctuary vaulting dates from the mid-thirteenth century.[^30]

The monastery’s library also preserved material beyond Shenoute’s works. Its fragmentary Sahidic *Alexander Romance*, probably revised from a Greek translation in the sixth century, came from a manuscript originally about 220 pages long, with roughly thirty-seven chapters, apparently often headed by biblical verses.[^32]

Later evidence includes a manuscript written for the monastery in 1587, a seventeenth-century waqf manuscript, and a reference to a nearby women’s monastery in the *Miracles of Ptolemy*. An Ethiopian inscription dated by Conti Rossini to 1563 suggests pilgrim connections and perhaps a temporary Ethiopian community; an earlier dating of 1730 is reported as mistaken.[^33]

### Images, dedications, and relic traditions

One representation described in the encyclopedia places Shenoute beside Christ, labelled Emmanuel, beneath separate arches. Shenoute holds a cross-topped staff and gestures toward Christ; differences in scale, facial form, and clothing distinguish the monk from the incarnate God.[^38]

A limestone stela from the White Monastery, now in Berlin, depicts an “Apa Shenute” under an arcade holding a similar staff. Its identification is disputed: the absence of a halo and the common monastic title allow another superior of the same name, while the framing and apparent lack of funerary purpose support identification with the saint.[^38]

His wider veneration is attested by a church dedicated to him within the Abu Sayfayn enclosure in Old Cairo and invocations on monastic stelae excavated near ancient Qaw.[^34][^35] A reported relic location south of Abu Tij requires caution: one entry attributes to Abu Salih a notice of the bones of Pachomius and Shenoute, whereas another explains that identification as a mistranslation of a notice concerning the martyrs Abu Bishah and Bisah.[^36][^37]

## Liturgical remembrance and continuing significance

Shenoute’s feast on 7 Abib, his association with Besa in the Memento of the saints, and the use of his homilies connect his memory with the worshipping Church.[^1][^10][^6] A *Coptic Church Review* review specifically cites nine Shenoute homilies among fifteen used in Paschal Week and acknowledges hymns honouring him, although the supplied passage gives no hymn texts or performance rubrics.[^6]

That review preserves a disagreement over his ecclesiastical recognition. The reviewed author considered him insufficiently honoured in church dedications and institutional support, attributing this to pacifism, preference for eremitic over cenobitic traditions, and regional leadership patterns. The reviewer rejected these claims as harsh and historically unsound, pointing especially to the Paschal homilies; neither judgment should be converted into an uncontested account of Church policy.[^6]

The pilgrimage survey lists Anba Shinudah at the White Monastery among Egypt’s principal Coptic pilgrimage centres. It understands pilgrimage as an act of worship involving veneration, bodily effort, offerings, and charity, while recalling that Shenoute himself criticized pilgrimages that became commercial fairs and occasions for amusement.[^39] His remembered importance thus includes both participation in the Church’s devotional life and a demanding critique of religious practices when their spiritual purpose was displaced.[^39]

## Frequently asked questions

**Who was Shenoute the Archimandrite?**
Shenoute was a Coptic monastic reformer and author who governed the White Monastery near Sohag and supervised communities of monks and nuns. His writings address monastic discipline, morality, biblical teaching, and theological controversy.

**When is Saint Shenoute’s feast day?**
The Coptic Encyclopedia gives his feast day as 7 Abib.

**When did Shenoute live?**
His dates are disputed in the supplied sources. The principal biographical entry proposes a death in 466 and a birth in 348 if Besa’s reported lifespan of 118 years is accepted, while other entries give different chronologies.

**Did Shenoute attend the Council of Ephesus?**
The principal biographical entry accepts his attendance with Cyril of Alexandria in 431 as historical. It treats the story of his violent confrontation with Nestorius more cautiously.

**How is Shenoute remembered in Coptic worship?**
His name is coupled with Besa’s in the Memento of the saints. A Coptic Church Review discussion also identifies nine homilies attributed to Shenoute among fifteen homilies used during Paschal Week.

## Sources
[^1]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 7, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 253)
[^2]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 3, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 237)
[^3]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 7, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 254)
[^4]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 7, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 255)
[^5]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 7, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 256)
[^6]: Coptic Church Review, Volume 2, Number 3 (p. 41)
[^7]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 6, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 297)
[^8]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 8, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 445)
[^9]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 4, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 406)
[^10]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 2, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 158)
[^11]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 6, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 823)
[^12]: Coptic Church Review, Volume 1, Number 4, Rodolph Yanney, M.D. (p. 18)
[^13]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 5, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 257)
[^14]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 5, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 258)
[^15]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 1, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 36)
[^16]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 5, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 50)
[^17]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 5, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 255)
[^18]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 5, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 248)
[^19]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 6, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 672)
[^20]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 4, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 407)
[^21]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 1, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 622)
[^22]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 5, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 30)
[^23]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 5, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 349)
[^24]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 5, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 348)
[^25]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 6, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 674)
[^26]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 6, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 675)
[^27]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 5, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 821)
[^28]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 6, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 448)
[^29]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 7, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 224)
[^30]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 3, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 250)
[^31]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 5, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 160)
[^32]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 7, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 64)
[^33]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 3, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 244)
[^34]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 3, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 125)
[^35]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 3, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 342)
[^36]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 1, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 100)
[^37]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 3, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 147)
[^38]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 2, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 539)
[^39]: The Coptic Encyclopedia, Volume 6, Aziz S. Atiya (Editor in Chief) (p. 679)
[^40]: Coptic Church Review, Volume 5, Number 3 (p. 17)